Conflict Resolution: Mediation and Arbitration

(Source: www.aisrael.org)

Conflicts and disputes are unavoidable phenomena in people's business and private lives. Depending on the nature of a conflict and the ability of the conflicting parties to communicate with each other during a conflict, a conflict may either get resolved or turn into a dispute. Although most conflicts get resolved by the parties involved, disputes often require an intervention of the third party, commonly known as an arbitrator or a mediator. Arbitrators and mediators can be used in a variety of different dispute situations.

Arbitrators and Mediators

Arbitrators and mediators play important roles in dispute resolution. While an arbitrator is similar to a mediator in that both have to be unbiased toward conflicting parties, their roles are also similar in that both mediator and arbitrator have to exhibit active listening skills, summarizing skills, and reframing skills, as well as the ability to manage the dispute so that it does not turn into a screaming match or a violent outbreak. According to Abigail and Cahn (2011), a mediator has to be a neutral party, has to ensure confidentiality to his or her clients, has to exhibit good communication skills, create a nurturing climate; encourage open and sincere communication while refraining from making decisions for the conflicting parties (p. 197-198). Mediation process is not only aimed at improving communication between the conflicting parties, but it also can re-establish good relationship between the parties. Arbitrators, on the other hand, have to listen to both of the parties, ask questions, and make a decision or judgment at the end based on the evidence and information supplied by both of the parties.

The Clarifying Role of Mediators and Arbitrators

In order to fully understand the conflict dilemma, arbitrators and mediators play a clarifying role, in which they are to listen to a conflict issue and help the parties either to find an acceptable resolution or to provide a resolution. According to Hartman and Crume (2007), “The clarifying role is one in which the facilitator is a gatherer of information, helps participants reframe the problem, uses active listening to engage participants in discussion, [and] provides feedback to reframe issues of concern” (p. 137). Only by fully understanding the nature of the dispute and underlying conflict issues can arbitrators and mediators manage the communication process between the conflicting parties and either help them to come up with a resolution, or to make a resolution for them.

Differences in the Role Functions of Arbitrators and Mediators

Arbitrators and mediators perform different functions in dispute resolution. The function of an arbitrator is similar to that of a litigator or a judge because an arbitrator has to make the final decision for the conflicting parties. According to the American Arbitration Association website (2007), an arbitrator’s function involves rendering a “final and binding decision, known as an “award.” Awards are made in writing and are generally final and binding on the parties in the case” (Arbitration, para. 1). Prior to appearing before an arbitrator, the parties have to sign a form that they are going to abide by the arbitrator’s decision in a given conflict. This implies that the arbitrator’s decision cannot be disputed or appealed by either of the parties.

Unlike arbitrators, mediators are not given the power to make binding decisions for the conflicting parties. The function of mediators, according to Abigail and Cahn (2011) is to “facilitate communication between the conflicting parties so that they may work out their own mutually acceptable agreement” (p. 195). Mediators, unlike arbitrators, let the participants to come to a resolution that satisfies both of the parties involved in a dispute. Like arbitrators, however, mediators have to write up a final agreement in which they state the each party’s obligations and requirements to which both of parties agreed during the mediation session.

Because of the different functions performed by arbitrators and mediators during dispute resolution, the effectiveness of arbitration and mediation may differ. More people favor mediation over arbitration because during a mediation session the parties are allowed to communicate with each other in order to express concerning issues and to find a mutually satisfying solution. Since during mediation the parties can resolve their dispute and come up with a reasonable resolution on their own, the parties are more likely to follow the resolution. Also, because during a mediation session the parties can negotiate the solution to find the most satisfying and workable resolution, an arbitration hearing can result in a win-lose outcome, or a compromise, which might leave one or both parties dissatisfied with the solution.

Effectiveness of Mediation and Arbitration

Mediation and arbitration can be effective in solving various kinds of disputes. According to Wall, Stark, and Standifer (2001), mediation can be effective in solving disputes involving “international relations, labor management negotiations, community disputes, school conflicts and legal disputes” (p. 371). Mediation is effective in those dispute situations where the parties are either not communicating with each other, or have given up looking for a mutually satisfying solutions. Arbitration is effective in solving dilemmas that are either legal in nature, or in situations where one or both of the parties are willing to file a court claim. Arbitration becomes a reasonable option when either one or both of the parties are unwilling to communicate with each other, or to resolve the dispute through a mediator. When involved in a dispute, both of the parties have to realize that there are several alternatives to dispute resolution they can consider. 

Sometimes, mediation is considered more effective than arbitration because mediation sessions are usually conducted in a somewhat relaxed and non-threatening atmosphere. Arbitration hearings, on the other hand, resemble small claims court proceedings, where a judge hears both parties and renders his or her verdict at the end.

American Arbitration Association

American Arbitration Association provides arbitration and mediation services as alternatives to dispute resolution as well as conflict avoidance services that conflicting parties may take into consideration. The American Arbitration Association website not only describes what each service has to offer, but also provides a conflict party with opportunities to find a skilled and certified mediator or an arbitrator, while conveniently listing their charge fees. Not only does the organization serve domestically, but also its services extend internationally. With a customer-friendly navigation and customer service support, the organization is committed to serve clients from the initiation of the claim through the achievement of conflict resolution. This website is a vital source for those people who are involved in a conflict but are unsure of which alternatives to dispute resolution to choose.

Disadvantages of Arbitration and Mediation

While there are advantages to arbitration and mediation, there also can be some minor drawbacks. For example, mediation can be time consuming, since parties have to find the most agreeable solution to their conflict. The disadvantage of arbitration is that the arbitrator makes the final decision for the parties. As a drawback for both mediation and arbitration, is that both of the conflicting parties have to spend time and money in order to solve their dispute. Thus, I would recommend mediation and arbitration only when solving a conflict on their own seems to be impossible for one or both of the parties.

Summary and Conclusion

Mediation and arbitration are two options that exist among other alternatives to dispute resolution. While arbitrators and mediators provide somewhat similar services in that they give both parties a chance to explain their side of the argument, the outcomes of arbitrations and mediations may differ. In an arbitration hearing an arbitrator usually is the one who decides the resolution for both of the parties, while in a mediation session, it is the parties who have to come up with a workable and satisfying resolution. When either one or both conflicting party cannot decide whether to use arbitration or mediation, American Arbitration Association can provide the necessary knowledge and resources to make the right decision as to which alternative to use as well as assist the potential client in finding an arbitrator or a mediator. Conflicting parties have to remember that they are not alone: With help from professional sources, such as American Arbitration Association, their disputes can be successfully resolved.



References:

 Abigail, R.A., & Cahn, D.D. (2011). Managing conflict through communication. (4th ed.).
       Boston, MA: Pearson Education Publishing.
American Arbitration Association. (2007). Arbitration and Mediation. Retrieved January 29,
       2012, from http://www.adr.org/arb-med.
Hartman, R.L., & Crume, A.L. (2007). Public forum mediation: A training exercise for
     conflict facilitation skills. Industrial and Commercial Training, 39(3), p. 137. Retrieved
     January 29, 2012, from ProQuest student database. (Document ID: 1343646601).
Wall, J.A., Stark, J.B, & Standifer, R.L. (2001, June). Mediation: A current review and
     theory development. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45(3), pp. 370-391. Retrieved
     January 30, 2012, from JSTOR student database.

Простой Процесс Утюжки Одежды (Russian/Русский)

(Старинный Утюг. Ресурс: tias.com)

Введение
Практика утюжки одежды существует уже много лет. До появления первого легковесного утюга в 1822 году, люди пользовались утюгами, которые «могли весить до 7-и киллограм» и нуждались в постоянном подогреве (Гладильный Утюг, параг. 6). Теперь, люди по всему миру пользуются утюгами, которые легко нагреваются и специально программируются, чтобы не испортить одежду и предотвратить телесные повреждения человека, который утюжит. Цель утюжки одежды состоит в разглаживании линий на чистых изделиях после их сушки.

Утюжка одежды является простым процессом, который требует приготовления и умения пользоваться электрическим утюгом. Самые важные этапы процесса, которые будут рассматриваться ниже, включают: 1) как приготовить утюг перед глажением, 2) как утюжить деликатные изделия, 3) как утюжить изделия, требующие высоких температур, и 4) как закончить процесс утюжки.

Процесс Утюжки Одежды:

Приготовление к Утюжке Одежды: Когда одежда постирана и высушена, она должна быть отутюжена, чтобы разгладить смятые линии на ткани. Чтобы приступить к утюжке, прежде всего, необходимо поставить гладильную доску. Затем, нужно поставить утюг на доску и включить его, поставив на самую низкую температуру. После этого следует рассортировать одежду по типу ткани: изделия из деликантных тканий необходимо положить отдельно от изделий, которые требуют высоких температур при глажении.

Как утюжить изделия из деликантых тканей: Изделия из деликантых тканей следует утюжить первыми, потому что утюг нагревается скорее, чем остывает. Поскольку горячий утюг может навсегда повредить деликатную ткань, требуется поставить утюг на самую низкую температуру. Можно использовать специально предназначенную утюжную марлю, чтобы защитить изделия от возможных повреждений. Распрямив изделие на гладильной доске, Вы можете приступить к утюжке.

Как утюжить изделия, требующие высоких температур: После того, как деликатные изделия поутюжены, нужно нагреть утюг до высокой температуры и налить чистой воды в отверстие утюга, которое, почти во всех случаях, находится на верхней поверхности утюга. Утюжить изделия нужно аккуратно, часто нажимая кнопку с выпуском струи воды, чтобы избавиться от трудноудалимых линий на ткани.

Как закончить процесс утюжки: Отутюжив последнее изделие, нужно выдернуть шнур утюга из розетки и поставить утюг на твёрдую поверхность, чтобы он остыл. Затем нужно сложить и убрать гладильную доску. Последним делом, повесив отутюженные изделия на вешалки, следует поместить их в шкаф.

Резюме: Чтобы Ваша одежда выглядела опрятно, нужно выполнять этапы процесса утюжки, начиная с расклада гладильной доски. Затем идёт сама утюжка, следуя определённым требованиям к виду и материалу изделий. Заканчивается процесс вешанием изделий в шкаф. Процесс утюжки поможет Вам заботиться о своей одежде. Следует отметить, что сначала нужно отутюжить деликатные изделия, потому что, если утюжить деликатные ткани горячим утюгом, их можно повредить. Утюг уже много лет является важнейшим домашним электрическим прибором, и, следуя статье под заголовком «Гладильный Утюг» (2011 г.), «Гладильные утюги всегда будут иметь место на прилавках магазина, пока люди не перестанут с гордостью смотреть, как опрятно выглядит их одежда» (параг. 10).

Ссылки:

Национальная Лаборатория Высокомагнитного Поля. (1995-2011). Гладильный Утюг. Центр по объединению исследования и изучения. Статья была найдена 12 Марта, 2012 на вебсайте: http://magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/museum/smoothingiron.html

The Simple Process of Ironing Clothes

(A Vintage Iron; Source: tias.com)

Introduction. The practice of ironing clothes has been around for many years. Before the first lightweight electric iron was invented in 1822, people used flat irons that “weighed up to 15 pounds” and needed constant reheating (Smoothing Iron, para. 6). Today, people all over the world enjoy ironing their clothes with an iron that is easily heated and equipped with the necessary settings to keep their clothes safe from burns and to prevent the iron operator from sustaining injuries. The purpose of the ironing process is to eliminate wrinkles on clean clothes.

Ironing clothes is a simple process that involves some preparation and knowledge of operating an electric iron. The major steps explained here are 1) how to prepare to iron clothes, 2) how to iron clothes that require delicate care, 3) how to iron clothes that require high heat setting, and 4) how to complete the process.

Definitions

An ironer – is a person who irons clothes, synonyms: launderer, presser.

The Process of Ironing Clothes

How to prepare to iron clothes. Once one’s clothes have been washed and dried, the launderer will have to iron them to remove those unwanted wrinkles. Before ironing clothes, the ironer has to set up an ironing board. Second, she sets the iron on the ironing board and plugs it into the electric outlet, having set the temperature setting on low. Then, the ironer sorts his or her clothes based on fabrics: she puts delicate clothes separately from those clothes that require high heat.

How to iron clothes that require delicate care. The delicate clothes have to be ironed first because iron heats much faster than it cools off. Because the intense heat can irreparably damage delicate materials, the ironer sets the heat setting on the lowest level of heat. One can use a special ironing cloth to protect a delicate garment. Once one has stretched a piece of garment on the ironing board, ironing can begin.

How to iron clothes that require high heat setting. After making sure that the delicate clothes have been ironed, the ironer sets the heat setting on high and pours purified water into the dedicated spout usually located near the top of the iron. The clothes have to be ironed carefully with the ironer pressing the spray button often to eliminate hard-to-remove wrinkles.

How to complete the process. After having ironed the last piece of garment, the ironer unplugs the iron from the outlet and puts it on a firm surface to cool down. Then, she folds and puts the ironing board away. Finally, the ironer puts her newly ironed clothes on hangers and hangs them in her closet.

Short Summary and Conclusion. In order to get one’s clothes looking neat, one has to go through the process of ironing clothes. Starting by setting up the ironing board, following by ironing clothes according to the garment handling requirements, and finishing the process by putting the clothes away, a person can take care of his or her garments. It is important to note that the delicate clothing has to be ironed first because if it is done another way around, one can damage the delicate material with the hot iron. The iron has been a valuable household appliance for a long time, and, according to Smoothing Iron (2011), “Irons will have a place in department stores for as long as consumers take pride in the smooth appearance of their clothing” (para. 10).      

References:

National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. (1995-2011). Smoothing iron. Center for
     Integrating Research and Learning. Retrieved March 12, 2012, from
     http://magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/museum/smoothingiron.html

An Example of a News Release (English)

Contact:
Olga Nellis, Pink Rose Co., Inc
2001 Dream Road, Suite 221
Dreamville, TX 10001

Tel: (999)999-9999
Fax: (888)888-8888
E-mail: pinkrose@skincarebiz.com

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

PINK ROSE INTRODUCES NEW FACE CREAM PROVEN TO KEEP FACE SKIN FROM AGING

Dreamville, TX: August 1, 2012 -For many years women have desired to keep the appearance of their skin young and healthy looking without buying expensive and often ineffective face care products. Now, Pink Rose skincare created a cream that not only provides daily essential nutrients and moisture, but also prevents facial skin from early aging, and is affordable.

The cream was developed based on a 100-year old Siberian skin care traditional recipe. The vegetable proteins, that are included in the cream, are collected from 15 different plants found only in Siberia have been used for over a century in various skin care potions that were proven to be effective in providing protection against signs of aging and in relaxing facial muscles  (which prevents early wrinkles), in enhancing cell metabolism, strengthening the collagen fibers, and increasing skin elasticity.

Pink Rose face care cream created with high quality ingredients gives skin a youthful and healthy appearance, fights the signs of aging, and improves the color and texture of skin while also protecting it from the sun’s harmful UVB rays that are considered the primary reason for skin aging. “The secret to a younger looking skin lies in the high quality skin care,” says Lynette Todd, the marketing director for Pink Rose Co., Inc.

This skin care product was especially formulated for women ages between 29-35 who have begun to spot the first signs of facial skin aging. The face cream is effective not only in reversing the signs of aging and smoothing the first wrinkles, but also in creating and maintaining the healthy look of the skin. The study results have shown that 98% of 30 women who tried this product experienced a decrease in the signs of aging, a more even skin tone and an improved skin texture after using this product for two weeks.

Pink Rose face cream is packaged in a 50 ml. plastic container. Suggested retail price is $8.99 per container. The product is going to be sold at the national pharmacy stores and at mass retailers throughout the country.

Pink Rose Co., Inc. is based in Dreamville Texas and specialized in production and distribution of skin care products that are sold in the United States, South America, and Europe. Pink Rose Co., Inc. is the only skin care product company that uses only natural ingredients grown both domestically and abroad, in combination with modern technologies to provide affordable quality skin care products to its customers. Pink Rose Co., Inc. is a multinational company with subsidiaries in Mexico, Germany and Russia.

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-Pink Rose Skin Care Co., Inc.  –Dream Rd, ste 221, Dreamville TX 10001-

Example of a News Release/ Пример Пресс-Релиза (Russian/Русский)

Контактное лицо:
Ольга Неллис, Пинк Роуз Co., Inc
2001 Dream Road, Suite 221
Dreamville, TX 10001

Тел: (999)999-9999
Факс: (888)888-8888
Эл. Почта: pinkrose@skincarebiz.com



ДЛЯ НЕМЕДЛЕННОГО ВЫПУСКА

ПИНК РОУЗ  ПРЕДСТАВЛЯЕТ НОВЫЙ КРЕМ ПО УХОДУ ЗА КОЖЕЙ ЛИЦА, ПРЕДОТВРАЩАЮЩИЙ СТАРЕНИЕ КОЖИ

Дреамвиль, Техас: 1го Августа, 2012

На протяжении многих лет женщины желали выглядеть молодыми и здоровыми, не тратя при этом деньги на дорогие и часто неэффективные средства по уходу за кожей. Теперь компания Пинк Роуз разработала крем для лица, который не только дает коже необходимые элементы питания и увлажнения, но и предотвращает преждевременное старение кожи лица. Цена этого продукта приемлима.

Крем был разработан на основе столетнего Сибирского традиционного рецепта по уходу за кожей лица. Растительные белки, входящие в состав крема, экстрагируют из 15ти разных растений, которые растут в Сибири. Эти белки, которые более века использовались в разных лекарственных составах по уходу за кожей, подтвердили свою эффективность в защите кожи против признаков старения, расслаблении мышц кожи (действие, которое предотвращает появление морщин), улучшении метаболизма клеток, укреплении коллагеновых волокон и в увеличении упругости кожи.

Собраный с самыми высококачественными компонентами, крем для лица компании Пинк Роуз придаёт коже лица молодость и здоровье. Крем борется с признаками старения кожи, улучшает её цвет и структуру, а также защищает кожу от вредного воздействия ультрофиолетовых лучей, которые являются первопричиной старения кожи. «Секрет молодости заключается в высококачественном уходе за кожей,» говорит Линетт Тодд, директор по маркетингу компании Пинк Роуз.

Крем был специально разработан для женщин от 29 до 35 лет, которые начали замечать первые признаки старения кожи. Крем не только эффективно устраняет признаки старения и разглаживает первые морщинки, но также придаёт и сохраняет здоровый цвет лица. Результаты исследования показали, что после двух недель применения продукта, 98% из 30 женщин наблюдали исчезновение признаков старения, появление равномерного тона и улучшение фактуры кожи лица.

Пинк Роуз крем выпускается в пластмассовой упаковке в объёме 50 мл.  Предложенная розничная цена продукта - $8.99 за упаковку. Крем будет продаваться в аптеках и магазинах по всей стране.

Компания Пинк Роуз основана в городе Дреамвиль, штате Техас, и специализируется в производстве и распродаже средств по ухода за кожей. Продуты компании можно купить в Соединённых Штатах Америки, в странах Южной Америки и в Европе. Пинк Роуз – единственная копмания, которая использует ислючительно натуральные растения, которые произрастают в США и за пределами страны, и использует современные технологии в производстве своей продукции, чтобы доставлять своим потребителям высококачественные продукты по приемлимым ценам. Пинк Роуз Co., Inc. является мультинациональной компанией, филиалы которой находятся в Мексике, Германии и России.

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-Pink Rose Skin Care Co., Inc.  –Dream Rd, ste 221, Dreamville TX 10001-

Humor in Persuasion

(Source:business.time.com)

Advertisers, politicians, religious leaders, and public speakers use humor as an effective persuasion tool. Humor successfully works in advertisements because funny and entertaining advertisements are more memorable than the humorless ones. People are more likely to remember hilarious television commercials and share them with their friends and relatives.

Humor produces a positive affect on the viewer’s mood by influencing the individual’s pathos, or emotions. Laughter, for example, reduces stress while uplifting the viewer’s mood. Good mood, in its turn, can have a positive effect on persuasion. According to a study (cited in Lyttle, 2001), “people who are in a good mood are less likely to disagree with a persuasive message” (para. 6). This might happen because the receiver can relate to the comical situation or because he or she appreciates the type of humor that the persuader is using. Relating to the situation and/or liking the type of humor may also increase the feeling of liking and connection with the source of humor in the viewer.

Appreciation of the type of humor the persuader is using can lead to developing a personal liking and connection in the viewer. According to Meyer (cited in Lyttle, 2001), “the choice of humor [the persuader employs] might illustrate a shared sense of humor that hints at a similar set of values” (para. 7). The closer the values depicted in the humorous situation resemble the viewer’s values, the closer the connection the viewer feels toward the persuader, and the more “likable” the persuader becomes to the viewer. Thus, persuasion can occur because the viewer is inclined to trust the person whose certain values resemble his or her own.

Humor and Persuasion Theories: Elaboration Likelihood Model and Heuristic Systematic Model

Persuasion theories, such as the Elaboration Likelihood Model and the Heuristic Systematic Model explain the effects of humor on persuasion. Both the Elaboration Likelihood Model and the Heuristic Systematic model, according to Siter and Gass (2004), maintain that depending on the individual’s motivation and ability to process information, the individual may employ either central (systematic) route, or peripheral (heuristic) route to process information (p. 57). When the viewer is motivated to process the message, he or she will be using the central, or systematic information processing route. When, on the other hand, the viewer’s motivation to process information is low he or she is more likely to rely on the peripheral or heuristic route, which provides shortcuts to the processing to information. In this case, the viewer may rely more on the source credibility and/or likability of the source, rather than on the quality of information. Humor, according to a study (cited in Lyttle, 2001), is effective in persuasion because the persuader may use it to “block systematic/central processing by distracting receivers from constructing counterarguments” (para. 8). When the systematic processing route becomes disengaged, the viewer is more likely to resort to using the peripheral processing route, which might facilitate successful persuasion.

Effects of the Types of Humor Used in Persuasion

The type of humor that advertisers use affect persuasion in the way that some types of humor may be more persuasive than others. For example, the results of one study conducted by Lyttle (2001) have shown that “ironic humor may be more effective than cartoon drawings and that self-effacing humor may be the most effective of all” (Discussion, para. 10). The reason why irony can be more effective in persuasion than a drawing is because it takes the viewer more time to process ironic humor than a drawing. Therefore, irony may have a longer impact on the viewer. The reason why self-effacing humor may be the most persuasive is that when the speaker points out his or her weaknesses or previous mistakes, the audience can relate to the speaker, which may increase the speakers likability and credibility.

Risks of Using Humor in Persuasion

The use of humor, in some instances, may involve risks. The potential drawbacks of using humor in persuasion include a) creating a distraction inhibiting the processing of information, and b) inducing insensitivity to the audience. One study (cited in Cline and Kellaris, 1999) suggests that a “humorous ad may increase attention while at the same time disrupt [information] processing” (Background and Hypotheses, para. 4). For example, when the persuader interrupts the message with an unrelated joke, the receiver pays more attention to the joke itself than to the contents of the message. Thus, the persuasiveness of the message’s arguments may be lost.

The advertisers have to be sensitive to their audience when advertising their product or service. For example, advertisers of life insurance companies and funeral home services should employ humor with care and sensitivity. When humor is used insensibly, chances are that the audience will not be persuaded, but rather offended. In such instances, strong arguments without humor might be a better option for advertisers. Cline and Kellaris (1999) write that, “strong, persuasive ad claims may not need humor to help sell a product” (Discussion, para. 4). The use of humor, thus, should depend on the specific product or service being advertised.



References:
Cline , T.W., & Kellaris, J.J. (1999). The joint impact of humor and argument strength in a print advertising context: A case for weaker arguments. Psychology and Marketing, 16(1), 69. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from ProQuest student database. (Document ID: 37875581).
Lyttle, J. (2001, April). The effectiveness of humor in persuasion: The case of business ethics training. The Journal of General Psychology, 128(2), p. 206. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from ProQuest student database. (Document ID: 77223102).
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Persuasion, Manipulation and Seduction

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Communication is an essential aspect of the modern society. People use verbal communication for a number of purposes, for example, to inform, to entertain, and to persuade others. In fact, our attitudes and behaviors are shaped by communication. It is important, however, to discern between the communication purposes. While some persuasive communication might be used ethically, other types of persuasive communicating are designed to either  manipulate or to deceive a somewhat naive person. Although persuasion, manipulation, and seduction might seem like synonyms, these terms are different in their strategies and techniques, as well as in their purposes for influencing people. 

Persuasion

Persuasion is a form of communication that is purposefully aimed to cause mind changes and behaviors in people who are being persuaded. Aurel Codoban, PhD, defines persuasion as “the modification of convictions and attitudes through communication, with the purpose of influencing decisions, actions and behaviors corresponding to the intentions or interest of the persuading speaker – but only with the participation of consciousness, that is by assuming freely and consciously the responsibility” (2006, p. 152). When persuasion occurs, the person who is being persuaded has to be aware of the persuasion in order to be able to process the information and to make the right decision. When the person is being aware of persuasion, he or she can ask questions and receive all the necessary information to make a well-informed and responsible decision.

Persuasion, unlike other persuasive communication, requires presenting substantive arguments and evidence to support a certain position. Aristotle (cited in Rorty, 2011) once said that “The skilled Persuader must . . . be able to construct both the valid and the contextually effective arguments for his case, that is, both the argument that constitutes its logically sound proof and the argument that – considering the beliefs of his audience – successfully persuades them” (para. 8). For example, if a person goes to a car dealership to buy a car, he or she wants to know the reasons why a certain car is worth consideration. The potential reasons may be that the car gets a good mileage, has a newly engineered engine, and no down payment is required. A sales person, as the persuader, has a goal to successfully persuade the customer to buy a car.

Persuasion affects audiences of all demographics and cultures. Television advertising, the largest source of persuasion, targets both children and adults both here in the United States and abroad. For example, just like many people in the United States, people in Japan and Russia make their purchasing decisions based on the televised commercials. With the target audience being so large both domestically and internationally, it is hard to tell which population demographic is more affected by persuasive advertisement. Probably, all audiences are equally affected, because the advertisers target all the demographics in order to sell the product. A commercial with a specific product, thus, targets a specific audience. For example, a commercial with a new video game would probably appeal to teenagers, while an advertisement featuring a wheel chair would most likely appeal to seniors, yet a construction play set commercial would target both toddlers and their parents. Persuasion, thus, affects all generations, people from different cultures and ethnic groups.

Manipulation

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Manipulation is a form of communication that differs from persuasion in the way that the person who is being manipulated is unaware that manipulation occurs. According to Robert B. Cialdini (cited in Codoban, 2006), manipulation is “the ability to produce a distinct kind of automatic, mindless compliance from people, that is, a willingness to say yes without thinking” (p. 154). Manipulators, thus, unlike persuaders, employ communication tactics in order to gain something from the receiver of manipulation. Codoban (2006) in his article describes the tactics or strategies that manipulators might use to influence their potential “victims”. These strategies include “the free sample” strategy, “the door-in-the face” strategy, “foot-in-the-door” strategy, and “the principle of social proof” strategy (p. 153-154). All these strategies are used to manipulate people in order for the manipulator to get what he or she desires.

The “free sample” strategy, as Codoban (2006) pointed out, is widely used in the supermarkets to influence the buyer to purchase the product based on receiving a small free sample of the product (p. 153). People are more likely to buy the product after trying a free sample to reciprocate the sales person for his or her kindness of offering the free sample. 

The “door-in-the-face” strategy, according to Codoban (2006) provides the manipulator with the opportunity to get what he or she desires by asking for something of significant value first. For example, if my neighbor asks me to loan her a $1,000, I might politely decline. Next, when she asks me to loan her $250 I might comply. Thus, I would be left without the money. 

The “foot-in-the-door” is another manipulative technique that is used to influence the target person to give something to the manipulator. One day, I have almost become a victim of this strategy. A young woman approached me in the gym parking lot where she asked me for directions how to get to the library. After having explained the directions to her, she asked me for money she claimed she needed to get there. I understood that I was being manipulated and told her I did not have cash, which was true. This strategy suggests that after asking for one request, the manipulator will ask for another, yet a more significant request.

The strategy of the “principle of social proof” is another subtle manipulative technique a person might use for his or her own gain. This technique is more likely to be employed in a social setting, where everyone is expected to follow certain social norms. For example, before going to a wedding, the guests usually discuss what gifts they will give to the bride and groom. They do this to compare the price-range of the gifts that other people are going to buy. Codoban (2006) in his article suggests that the “principle of social proof” works because “one important means people use for deciding what to believe or how to act is to look at what the others believe or do” (p. 154). To avoid being manipulated by others, a person should make her or his own decision, and disregard other people’s comments. In the above -mentioned example, thus, it would be a wise decision for a wedding guest not to discuss the wedding gift with others. 

The more people know about different manipulation strategies, the less likely they will become a victim of manipulation. The people who are the most likely to become manipulated, thus, are the people who are unaware of different manipulative techniques. The teenagers are more likely to be manipulated, because they are less familiar with the manipulation techniques.

The most important thing about manipulation is that people manipulate others for selfish reasons. In fact, as Codoban (2006), pointed out, one difference between manipulation and other persuasive communication, is that during manipulation, “the relationship between two subjects [turns into] a subject-object relationship” (p. 154). In order to reach his or her goal, the manipulator is willing to treat the receiver of the manipulation as an object. Because the manipulator treats the receiver as an object and the manipulation itself occurs on the subconscious level, manipulation is considered immoral. Sarah Buss (2005) writes: “it is morally wrong for us to . . . manipulate a competent adult human being because it is morally wrong for someone to “try to determine which levers to pull to get the desired results” from someone else” (The Effects of Manipulated and Deceived upon the Autonomy of the Manipulated and Deceived, para. 3). Since the manipulator intentionally desires to influence another person without the person’s knowledge, it is both unethical and immoral. 

Another important difference between manipulation and other persuasive communication, as Codoban (2006) points out, is that manipulation cannot be admitted to the receiver (p. 154). Should such a disclosure occur, according to Codoban (2006), the unconscious processing of manipulative information would turn into conscious awareness of manipulation (p. 154). The receiver, thus, becomes aware that he or she is being manipulated.

Seduction

(Source: Google Images)

Seduction is another persuasive communication that we encounter on a daily basis. Seduction differs from persuasion in the way that seduction happens without the person’s awareness. Paul Hamilton (2011), in his article Beyond the Traditional – Persuasion vs. Seduction, writes the following: “if you are conscious that someone is asking you for something, or trying to influence you to do something, you are being persuaded. If you do not know what is going on until later, then you are being seduced” (para. 7). Thus, in this regard seduction is similar to manipulation. Seduction resembles persuasion in the way that it, according to Codoban (2006), “focuses on the subject even if seducer becomes an object” (p. 155). For example, just like the persuader focuses to persuade a person by mentioning all the benefits the person will get if he or she buys a certain product, seducers also focus on the customer’s benefits by promising them the wonders a certain product will bring them.

Seduction has a widespread use in the advertisement industry. Television commercials use seduction to influence the potential customers to buy their products. Why people are so susceptible to seductive advertising? Because people are inclined to believe in any advertised product, that claims to make them look younger, healthier and more beautiful, or bring them more happiness. According to Codoban (2006), “Seduction is based on the promise of happiness or pleasure” (p. 155). Seduction works because everyone wants to be happier, healthier, or more loved. In my opinion, women are more susceptible to seduction than men are. The reason women are more likely to be seduced by advertising is because women care more about their appearance than men do. For example, women are more likely to buy weight loss products, or wrinkle treatments that promise almost instant results. However, after using these products that often do not work, consumers realize that they have been seduced. Such customers are more likely to learn from the seductive advertisements and will watch advertisements with more criticism in the future.

Persuasion, manipulation, and seduction although seem to be semantically close, are different. These three communication strategies employ different techniques in order to influence the receiver of the message. While persuasion can be considered the most ethical of the three strategies, manipulation and seduction use somewhat inappropriate, or even deceitful methods to influence others. The best way to avoid being manipulated or seduced is to be educated about the methods used to manipulate or seduce people. The more knowledge a person has about manipulation and seduction, the less likely he or she will become a victim of one of their strategies.

 References:

Buss, S. (2005, January). Valuing autonomy and respecting persons: Manipulation,

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