Cultural Influences on the Development of Business Relationships Between the United States and Japan

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Globalization and the expansion of industry lead to forming new business contacts between the United States and Japan. Although the business decisions between the two countries are made mostly on the mutual trust and development of profitable business plans, intercultural communication plays a vital role in the business amelioration, because the success of business negotiations between the representatives of both of the countries depends on the mutual understanding of verbal and nonverbal communication as manifested by the standards of the Japanese and American cultures. The understanding of cultural differences helps develop and maintain successful intercultural business relationships.

The way the Japanese businessmen communicate with the potential business partners from the United States is strongly related to the specific details of the Japanese culture that includes verbal and nonverbal communication. According to Alan Goldman, the author of Doing Business with the Japanese: A Guide to Successful Communication, Management and Diplomacy (cited in Sobel, 1995), the Japanese business culture also has its special traditions and values that an American businessman has to understand and respect in order to develop a successful business relationship between the two countries. The article by Robert Sobel (1995), dedicated to the review of the book, discusses how the cultural barriers that exist between the American and the Japanese ways of negotiating the business can be breached by explaining the differences of business negotiations in Japan and in the United States. The article discusses such differences between the two cultures as time perception, nonverbal communication, and handling of the business cards, among other differences.

       

In Japan, time perception is different from that in the United States. According to Goldman (cited in Sobel, 1995), the Japanese business owners “open discussions slowly, wanting to know more about their counterparts’ concepts of honor, tradition, family, . . . before entering into serious negotiations.”  The author later notices that the Americans businessmen are impatient, in comparison to the Japanese, they intend “to get down to brass tacks as soon as possible” (Sobel, 1995). Therefore, as Hybels and Weaver (2007) correctly notice, that in order to communicate effectively in an intercultural environment one has to “simply assume that their sense of time is different from yours” (p. 147). It is important, thus, to follow another party’s verbal and nonverbal clues to know when to proceed with the business negotiations.

       

The next important difference lies in the “high context” (Hybels & Weaver, 2007, p. 65) of the Japanese culture.  According to Goldman (cited in Sobel, 1995), “Japanese use of nonverbal communication is viewed as more sophisticated than verbal utterings because the subtle, indirect messages of the face, eyes, body, voice, special arrangements and silence depend on an unspoken empathy and intuitiveness between sender and receiver.” Hybels and Weaver (2007) explain this nonverbal communication as being more effective because “most of the meaning of a message is either implied by the physical setting or is presumed to be part of the individual’s beliefs, values, and norms” (p. 65). In countries where “high context messages” (Hybels & Weaver, 2007, p. 65) are implied rather than stated by the speakers, people need fewer words for explanations and definitions, because the implied messages are easily understood by the people within the same culture.

       

Third, there is a difference between how a Japanese and an American receives and stores business cards. According to Goldman (cited in Sobel, 1995), “the Japanese place the cards carefully on the desk and refer to them during pauses, [while] Americans place the cards in their wallets.” This statement confirms what Hybels and Weaver (2007) write in Communicating Effectively explaining that “[the Japanese] view [business cards] as an extension of the person” (p. 20). Thus, according to Hybels and Weaver (2007) when Americans hide the business card quickly away in the wallets or pockets results in “behavior insulting to the Japanese” (p. 20), which, in its turn, may negatively impact the business relationship. After the exchange of the business card it would be more appropriate to treat the business card of the possible future business ally in the same way as he or she does, instead of putting it away.

   

Intercultural business relationships are important in this fast developing world. The more one knows about the Japanese culture and traditions, the more successful she or he will be in establishing long lasting professional relationship with a Japanese business company. Therefore, the understanding of time perception, nonverbal communication and how to properly handle a business card may add to forming a successful business relationship. In his book Doing Business with the Japanese: A Guide to Successful Communication, Management and Diplomacy, Alan Goldman (cited in Sobel, 1995) states: “There are many pressure points and tensions surrounding joint ventures and it is up to our U.S. representatives to learn how to diffuse and sidestep our differences, and more effectively operate with the Japanese culture.” The more a U.S. business owner is familiar with the Japanese culture, the more effective, stronger and pleasurable the business partnership will be with the Japanese.

      

References:

Hybels, S., & Weaver, R. L. (2007). Communicating Effectively. (8^th Ed.). Boston: McGraw-

     Hill Publishing.

Sobel, R. (1995). Books in Review- Doing Business with the Japanese: A Guide to

     Successful Communication, Management and Diplomacy by Alan Goldman. Electronic

     News, 41 (2066), p. 38. Retrieved January 30, 2011, from ProQuest student database.

Professional Advice for English/Russian Translators

Working with languages can create an exciting and rewarding career in the translation industry. If translators did not exist, international communication would be virtually impossible. Although some people may try to explain themselves using international “language” such as drawings or gestures, this way of communication will soon wear out both the speaker and the listener.

Free Online Translation Services

Free online translation services are not the most reliable tools, since they employ the most used meaning of a particular word disregarding the context. For example, let us translate the sentence “I am very excited about your upcoming visit” using a few available free online English/Russian translators:

PROMPT-Online: “Я очень взволнован о вашем предстоящем посещении.» This translation employs the word “worried” to render the word “excited.”

Microsoft translator: “Я очень рады о вашем предстоящем визите.» Here, the personal pronoun “I” does not agree with the short adjective that is used in plural: “рады.” The sentence also has an error with the use of the possessive pronoun: Instead of «о вашем предстоящем визите» it should be «вашему предстоящему визиту.»

Babylon translator: «Я очень довольны Вашей предстоящей поездки.» Just like in the previous case, the personal pronoun “I” does not agree with the adjective that is used in plural. Plus, the sentence does not adhere to the Russian norms of speech.

Google translator: “Я очень взволнован o Вашем предстоящем визите.» Тhe word “worried” is used to render the meaning of the word “excited.” This skews the meaning of the sentence written in English.

The correct translation of the sentence “I was very excited about your upcoming visit” would be: Я очень рад Вашему предстоящему визиту. This sentence sounds formal and is grammatically correct.

Reliable translation. Only a live language expert will provide an accurate translation from one language into another. In the translation industry, artificial intelligence will not be able to replace a living person. Translating from one language into another requires a certain set of skills. These skills have to be constantly developed by practice.

Steps to Practicing Translation Skills

Understanding the Written Text. This is the first stage of the project, where the translator has to review the text in the source language in order to make sure he or she understands the information. I recommend reading the entire text at first. Then, if you have questions, this would be the right time to ask the author or the client for clarification.

Clarifying information

Asking questions is important, especially when working with a highly technical terminology. Back in 1998, when I was translating a technical manual (from Danish into Russian) for a company that produced medical equipment, I came across an unfamiliar term. Out of fear to appear not completely knowledgeable about the subject, I decided to consult a technical dictionary. Although found the term I was looking for, the dictionary gave me multiple Russian definitions of the same Danish word. I knew I had to pick the best term that fit the meaning of the Danish word. Simply put, I could not complete the project without consulting a Danish engineer.

That same day, I went to the production department. After a gentleman with an “engineer” tag on his shirt greeted me at the door, I introduced myself and asked if he had time to clarify the meaning of the technical term. After the conversation with the engineer, not only was I sure which word to use, but also I gained more technical knowledge about the term itself. This information helped me throughout the project, since the same term was used multiple times in the technical manual. The lesson I learned that day: Do not be afraid to ask questions.

Translating

After the translator is confident that he or she understands the information, it is the time to write the first draft of the project. It is the translator’s dream to be able to write a perfect draft the very first time. Most of the time, however, it does not happen. Sometimes, a translator might run into a situation, where, it seems like all the words are familiar, but the sentence is impossible to translate.

An experienced translator knows that it is not enough to have an extensive vocabulary; a translator should also know to which part of speech every word in a sentence belongs. Familiar words and inability to put them together may often appear frustrating. It is one of the “translator’s dilemmas,” so to speak. To start solving this “puzzle,” first we have to find the subject and the object in the sentence; then the verb, followed by the adjective.

Cultural Knowledge

(Window frames commonly used
in Belarus and other countries of the CIS)

An experienced translator should be familiar with cultural realities present in the languages of both the source and the target cultures. For example, in Russian speaking countries, a window frame is not raised up with a push of a hand; instead, it is pulled open inside. Therefore, the sentence “She raised the window to clean it” will be translated in Russian as “She opened the window in order to clean it” (Russian: «Она открыла окно, чтобы его помыть.») 

Translating Idioms and Figures of Speech

Set expressions express cultural knowledge, and therefore, they present a translation challenge. A set phrase in one language may be translated in another language using different words. For example, an English speaker may say: “She’s head over hills in debt.” In Russian, this sentence would sound: “She’s up to her ears in debt.” (Russian: Она по уши в долгах.)  It is important to be familiar with translation of idioms or set expressions in order to render set expressions correctly from one language into another.

Editing

Proofreading and editing are the most important parts of a translator’s job. A rough translation draft is not a guarantee that the audience will understand the client’s message. Not only unedited text may contain numerous grammar and punctuation errors, but it also may not sound “natural” in the target language. A well edited text is free of any errors and can be read smoothly by the speakers of the target language. A translator, thus, has to be able not only to translate the information accurately from one language into another, but also to communicate the information in a way that it sounds naturally. As a professional communicator, my job is to communicate the information into the target language in such a way that the audience will not be able to suspect that the text has been translated from another language. The flow of information has to appear logical, simple and natural to the audience.

A language professional should always increase his or her cultural knowledge of the countries where both the source and target languages are used. In addition to cultural knowledge, a translator should constantly expand vocabulary. The most important advice to a translator is to never stop learning and growing professionally. After all, language professionals are irreplaceable.

Intercultural Communication in Virtual Worlds

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In the past, it was essential for a person to leave his or her house in order to learn about other people and their cultures. With the development of modern computer technologies, it has become possible to communicate with the people from other cultures from the comfort of one’s home. The dialogue and interaction in a virtual world enhance intercultural understanding and communication. Although there are some limitations to online intercultural communication, the benefits of communicating with people from other cultures in the online environment outweigh those limitations.

Online environment presents a great opportunity for communication with people from other cultures. Communication with representatives of other cultures increases one’s cultural awareness that enables one to understand customs and traditions of another culture and use this information to communicate with the representatives of that culture. According to Jandt (2010), “cultural awareness is identified as a critical intercultural communication skill” (p. 213). Virtual worlds have created a new channel of communication, which not only facilitates the exchange of cultural information but also provides a means to establishing new friendships with people who live in two different countries.

In an online environment, people have an opportunity to communicate with others through their culture, for example through poems, music, storytelling, and dance. The former U.S. ambassador Cynthia P. Schneider said in the online video that, “The quickest way to communicate something is through culture.” Increasing one’s knowledge and understanding about other people’s cultures can potentially eliminate negative stereotypes and prejudices toward the members of other cultures.

Another advantage of online intercultural communication involves a relatively high level of anonymity. Fouts and King (2009) write that, “in a virtual world where physical harm is not a factor and where issues such as gender, race, age and physical ability are hidden from view on first sight, thus creating a level field in which conversations can take place” (para. 3). Online environment provides an opportunity to ask culturally sensitive questions that one would not dare to ask in person. Therefore, online environment is a perfect place for learning about other cultures and for practicing one’s intercultural communication skills.

The main limitation of online communication is the limited amount of nonverbal clues that communicators are able to convey in a virtual world. Communicating using avatars does not allow transmitting the necessary countless nonverbal clues that are only available in face-to-face communication. Therefore, communicators in the virtual worlds rely mostly on verbal communication. According to one study (cited in Alvarez-Torrez, Mishra, & Zhao, 2001), in the virtual environment, “people pay much greater attention to verbal cues than visual ones” (para. 3). Although non-verbal communication may provide certain clues, it is mainly through the use of verbal interaction that online communicators exchange cultural information.  

Another drawback, or limitation, of online intercultural communication is that the misconception about cultures and their members causes some people to approach intercultural communication with preconceived stereotypes. According to Alvarez-Torres, Mishra, and Zhao (2001), “Humans often make assumptions about other people and stereotype them based on superficial clues” (para. 1). Stereotypes often hinder communication, thus preventing the sharing and understanding of information. In virtual worlds, where there is less opportunity for feedback and nonverbal communication, if a person does not get involved into verbal communication with the members of other cultures, those stereotypes will prevail. Therefore, it is essential that online communicators engage in verbal communication and preclude stereotyping others.

Although communication in virtual worlds has some drawbacks, the benefits of online communication certainly offset these limitations. Communicating in virtual worlds has provided communicators with an opportunity to share their cultures with other people. While the communicators can both ask and answer culture-related questions, they can enjoy the anonymity provided by the virtual online environment. Learning about different cultures can reduce and even eliminate anxiety of intercultural communication associated with negative stereotypes and prejudices. Knowledge and understanding of other cultures increases tolerance and acceptance of other people and their cultural traditions and customs. Understanding and awareness of other cultures assist in creating and maintaining intercultural relationships with the representatives of other cultures while enhancing the communicators’ intercultural communication skills. 

      

  

References:

Alvarez-Torres, M.J., Mishra, P, & Zhao, Y. (2001). Judging a book by its cover! Cultural

     stereotyping of interactive media and its effect on the recall of text information. Journal of

     Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, vol. 10. Retrieved May 28, 2012, from

     http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002415078

Fouts, J.S., & King, R.J. (2009). Understanding Islam through virtual worlds (2008-2008).

      (Video). Retrieved May 27, 2012,

      from http://www.cceia.org/programs/archive/002/index.html

Jandt, F. E. (2010). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global

      community (6^th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Conflict Resolution: Mediation and Arbitration

(Source: www.aisrael.org)

Conflicts and disputes are unavoidable phenomena in people's business and private lives. Depending on the nature of a conflict and the ability of the conflicting parties to communicate with each other during a conflict, a conflict may either get resolved or turn into a dispute. Although most conflicts get resolved by the parties involved, disputes often require an intervention of the third party, commonly known as an arbitrator or a mediator. Arbitrators and mediators can be used in a variety of different dispute situations.

Arbitrators and Mediators

Arbitrators and mediators play important roles in dispute resolution. While an arbitrator is similar to a mediator in that both have to be unbiased toward conflicting parties, their roles are also similar in that both mediator and arbitrator have to exhibit active listening skills, summarizing skills, and reframing skills, as well as the ability to manage the dispute so that it does not turn into a screaming match or a violent outbreak. According to Abigail and Cahn (2011), a mediator has to be a neutral party, has to ensure confidentiality to his or her clients, has to exhibit good communication skills, create a nurturing climate; encourage open and sincere communication while refraining from making decisions for the conflicting parties (p. 197-198). Mediation process is not only aimed at improving communication between the conflicting parties, but it also can re-establish good relationship between the parties. Arbitrators, on the other hand, have to listen to both of the parties, ask questions, and make a decision or judgment at the end based on the evidence and information supplied by both of the parties.

The Clarifying Role of Mediators and Arbitrators

In order to fully understand the conflict dilemma, arbitrators and mediators play a clarifying role, in which they are to listen to a conflict issue and help the parties either to find an acceptable resolution or to provide a resolution. According to Hartman and Crume (2007), “The clarifying role is one in which the facilitator is a gatherer of information, helps participants reframe the problem, uses active listening to engage participants in discussion, [and] provides feedback to reframe issues of concern” (p. 137). Only by fully understanding the nature of the dispute and underlying conflict issues can arbitrators and mediators manage the communication process between the conflicting parties and either help them to come up with a resolution, or to make a resolution for them.

Differences in the Role Functions of Arbitrators and Mediators

Arbitrators and mediators perform different functions in dispute resolution. The function of an arbitrator is similar to that of a litigator or a judge because an arbitrator has to make the final decision for the conflicting parties. According to the American Arbitration Association website (2007), an arbitrator’s function involves rendering a “final and binding decision, known as an “award.” Awards are made in writing and are generally final and binding on the parties in the case” (Arbitration, para. 1). Prior to appearing before an arbitrator, the parties have to sign a form that they are going to abide by the arbitrator’s decision in a given conflict. This implies that the arbitrator’s decision cannot be disputed or appealed by either of the parties.

Unlike arbitrators, mediators are not given the power to make binding decisions for the conflicting parties. The function of mediators, according to Abigail and Cahn (2011) is to “facilitate communication between the conflicting parties so that they may work out their own mutually acceptable agreement” (p. 195). Mediators, unlike arbitrators, let the participants to come to a resolution that satisfies both of the parties involved in a dispute. Like arbitrators, however, mediators have to write up a final agreement in which they state the each party’s obligations and requirements to which both of parties agreed during the mediation session.

Because of the different functions performed by arbitrators and mediators during dispute resolution, the effectiveness of arbitration and mediation may differ. More people favor mediation over arbitration because during a mediation session the parties are allowed to communicate with each other in order to express concerning issues and to find a mutually satisfying solution. Since during mediation the parties can resolve their dispute and come up with a reasonable resolution on their own, the parties are more likely to follow the resolution. Also, because during a mediation session the parties can negotiate the solution to find the most satisfying and workable resolution, an arbitration hearing can result in a win-lose outcome, or a compromise, which might leave one or both parties dissatisfied with the solution.

Effectiveness of Mediation and Arbitration

Mediation and arbitration can be effective in solving various kinds of disputes. According to Wall, Stark, and Standifer (2001), mediation can be effective in solving disputes involving “international relations, labor management negotiations, community disputes, school conflicts and legal disputes” (p. 371). Mediation is effective in those dispute situations where the parties are either not communicating with each other, or have given up looking for a mutually satisfying solutions. Arbitration is effective in solving dilemmas that are either legal in nature, or in situations where one or both of the parties are willing to file a court claim. Arbitration becomes a reasonable option when either one or both of the parties are unwilling to communicate with each other, or to resolve the dispute through a mediator. When involved in a dispute, both of the parties have to realize that there are several alternatives to dispute resolution they can consider. 

Sometimes, mediation is considered more effective than arbitration because mediation sessions are usually conducted in a somewhat relaxed and non-threatening atmosphere. Arbitration hearings, on the other hand, resemble small claims court proceedings, where a judge hears both parties and renders his or her verdict at the end.

American Arbitration Association

American Arbitration Association provides arbitration and mediation services as alternatives to dispute resolution as well as conflict avoidance services that conflicting parties may take into consideration. The American Arbitration Association website not only describes what each service has to offer, but also provides a conflict party with opportunities to find a skilled and certified mediator or an arbitrator, while conveniently listing their charge fees. Not only does the organization serve domestically, but also its services extend internationally. With a customer-friendly navigation and customer service support, the organization is committed to serve clients from the initiation of the claim through the achievement of conflict resolution. This website is a vital source for those people who are involved in a conflict but are unsure of which alternatives to dispute resolution to choose.

Disadvantages of Arbitration and Mediation

While there are advantages to arbitration and mediation, there also can be some minor drawbacks. For example, mediation can be time consuming, since parties have to find the most agreeable solution to their conflict. The disadvantage of arbitration is that the arbitrator makes the final decision for the parties. As a drawback for both mediation and arbitration, is that both of the conflicting parties have to spend time and money in order to solve their dispute. Thus, I would recommend mediation and arbitration only when solving a conflict on their own seems to be impossible for one or both of the parties.

Summary and Conclusion

Mediation and arbitration are two options that exist among other alternatives to dispute resolution. While arbitrators and mediators provide somewhat similar services in that they give both parties a chance to explain their side of the argument, the outcomes of arbitrations and mediations may differ. In an arbitration hearing an arbitrator usually is the one who decides the resolution for both of the parties, while in a mediation session, it is the parties who have to come up with a workable and satisfying resolution. When either one or both conflicting party cannot decide whether to use arbitration or mediation, American Arbitration Association can provide the necessary knowledge and resources to make the right decision as to which alternative to use as well as assist the potential client in finding an arbitrator or a mediator. Conflicting parties have to remember that they are not alone: With help from professional sources, such as American Arbitration Association, their disputes can be successfully resolved.



References:

 Abigail, R.A., & Cahn, D.D. (2011). Managing conflict through communication. (4th ed.).
       Boston, MA: Pearson Education Publishing.
American Arbitration Association. (2007). Arbitration and Mediation. Retrieved January 29,
       2012, from http://www.adr.org/arb-med.
Hartman, R.L., & Crume, A.L. (2007). Public forum mediation: A training exercise for
     conflict facilitation skills. Industrial and Commercial Training, 39(3), p. 137. Retrieved
     January 29, 2012, from ProQuest student database. (Document ID: 1343646601).
Wall, J.A., Stark, J.B, & Standifer, R.L. (2001, June). Mediation: A current review and
     theory development. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45(3), pp. 370-391. Retrieved
     January 30, 2012, from JSTOR student database.

Простой Процесс Утюжки Одежды (Russian/Русский)

(Старинный Утюг. Ресурс: tias.com)

Введение
Практика утюжки одежды существует уже много лет. До появления первого легковесного утюга в 1822 году, люди пользовались утюгами, которые «могли весить до 7-и киллограм» и нуждались в постоянном подогреве (Гладильный Утюг, параг. 6). Теперь, люди по всему миру пользуются утюгами, которые легко нагреваются и специально программируются, чтобы не испортить одежду и предотвратить телесные повреждения человека, который утюжит. Цель утюжки одежды состоит в разглаживании линий на чистых изделиях после их сушки.

Утюжка одежды является простым процессом, который требует приготовления и умения пользоваться электрическим утюгом. Самые важные этапы процесса, которые будут рассматриваться ниже, включают: 1) как приготовить утюг перед глажением, 2) как утюжить деликатные изделия, 3) как утюжить изделия, требующие высоких температур, и 4) как закончить процесс утюжки.

Процесс Утюжки Одежды:

Приготовление к Утюжке Одежды: Когда одежда постирана и высушена, она должна быть отутюжена, чтобы разгладить смятые линии на ткани. Чтобы приступить к утюжке, прежде всего, необходимо поставить гладильную доску. Затем, нужно поставить утюг на доску и включить его, поставив на самую низкую температуру. После этого следует рассортировать одежду по типу ткани: изделия из деликантных тканий необходимо положить отдельно от изделий, которые требуют высоких температур при глажении.

Как утюжить изделия из деликантых тканей: Изделия из деликантых тканей следует утюжить первыми, потому что утюг нагревается скорее, чем остывает. Поскольку горячий утюг может навсегда повредить деликатную ткань, требуется поставить утюг на самую низкую температуру. Можно использовать специально предназначенную утюжную марлю, чтобы защитить изделия от возможных повреждений. Распрямив изделие на гладильной доске, Вы можете приступить к утюжке.

Как утюжить изделия, требующие высоких температур: После того, как деликатные изделия поутюжены, нужно нагреть утюг до высокой температуры и налить чистой воды в отверстие утюга, которое, почти во всех случаях, находится на верхней поверхности утюга. Утюжить изделия нужно аккуратно, часто нажимая кнопку с выпуском струи воды, чтобы избавиться от трудноудалимых линий на ткани.

Как закончить процесс утюжки: Отутюжив последнее изделие, нужно выдернуть шнур утюга из розетки и поставить утюг на твёрдую поверхность, чтобы он остыл. Затем нужно сложить и убрать гладильную доску. Последним делом, повесив отутюженные изделия на вешалки, следует поместить их в шкаф.

Резюме: Чтобы Ваша одежда выглядела опрятно, нужно выполнять этапы процесса утюжки, начиная с расклада гладильной доски. Затем идёт сама утюжка, следуя определённым требованиям к виду и материалу изделий. Заканчивается процесс вешанием изделий в шкаф. Процесс утюжки поможет Вам заботиться о своей одежде. Следует отметить, что сначала нужно отутюжить деликатные изделия, потому что, если утюжить деликатные ткани горячим утюгом, их можно повредить. Утюг уже много лет является важнейшим домашним электрическим прибором, и, следуя статье под заголовком «Гладильный Утюг» (2011 г.), «Гладильные утюги всегда будут иметь место на прилавках магазина, пока люди не перестанут с гордостью смотреть, как опрятно выглядит их одежда» (параг. 10).

Ссылки:

Национальная Лаборатория Высокомагнитного Поля. (1995-2011). Гладильный Утюг. Центр по объединению исследования и изучения. Статья была найдена 12 Марта, 2012 на вебсайте: http://magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/museum/smoothingiron.html